This document
is provided by the Computer and Information Sciences Department to the students
of East Tennessee State University to facilitate the classroom discussion of
issues in professional computer ethics.
ACM Code of
Ethics and Professional Conduct[1]
Preamble. Commitment
to ethical professional conduct is expected of every member (voting members,
associate members, and student members) of the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM).
This Code, consisting of
24 imperatives formulated as statements of personal responsibility, identifies
the elements of such a commitment. It contains many, but not all, issues
professionals are likely to face. Section 1 outlines fundamental ethical
considerations, while Section 2 addresses additional, more specific
considerations of professional conduct.
Statements in Section 3 pertain more specifically to individuals who
have a leadership role, whether in the workplace or in a volunteer capacity
such as with organizations like ACM.
Principles involving compliance with this Code are given in Section 4.
The
Code shall be supplemented by a set of Guidelines, which provide explanation to
assist members in dealing with the various issues contained in the Code. It is expected that the Guidelines will be
changed more frequently than the Code.
The
Code and its supplemented Guidelines are intended to serve as a basis for
ethical decision making in the conduct of professional work. Secondarily, they may serve as a basis for
judging the merit of a formal complaint pertaining to violation of professional
ethical standards.
It
should be noted that although computing is not mentioned in the imperatives of
section 1.0, the Code is concerned with how these fundamental imperatives apply
to one's conduct as a computing professional.
These imperatives are expressed in a general form to emphasize that
ethical principles which apply to computer ethics are derived from more general
ethical principles.
It
is understood that some words and phrases in a code of ethics are subject to
varying interpretations, and that any ethical principle may conflict with other
ethical principles in specific situations.
Questions related to ethical conflicts can best be answered by
thoughtful consideration of fundamental principles, rather than reliance on
detailed regulations.
1. GENERAL
MORAL IMPERATIVES. As an ACM member I will . . .
1.1 Contribute
to society and human well-being.
1.2 Avoid
harm to others.
1.3 Be
honest and trustworthy.
1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
1.5 Honor
property rights including copyrights and patents.
1.6 Give
proper credit for intellectual property.
1.7 Respect
the privacy of others.
1.8 Honor
confidentiality.
2. MORE
SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES. As an
ACM computing professional I will . . .
2.1 Strive
to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process
and products of professional work.
2.2 Acquire
and maintain professional competence.
2.3 Know
and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work.
2.4 Accept
and provide appropriate professional review.
2.5 Give
comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts,
including analysis of possible risks.
2.6 Honor
contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities.
2.7 Improve
public understanding of computing and its consequences
2.8 Access
computing and communication resources only when authorized to do so.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IMPERATIVES. As an ACM member and an organizational
leader, I will . . . . .
3.1 Articulate
social responsibilities of members of an organizational unit and encourage full
acceptance of those responsibilities.
3.2 Manage
personnel and resources to design and build information systems that enhance
the quality of working life.
3.3 Acknowledge
and support proper and authorized uses of an organization's computing and
communication resources.
3.4 Ensure that users and those who will be affected by a system have their needs clearly articulated during the assessment and design of requirements; later the system must be validated to meet requirements.
3.5 Articulate
and support policies that protect the dignity of users and others affected by a
computing system.
3.6 Create
opportunities for members of the organization to learn the principles and
limitations of computer systems.
4. COMPLIANCE WITH THE CODE. As an ACM member, I will . . . .
4.1 Uphold
and promote the principles of this Code.
4.2 Treat
violations of this code as inconsistent with membership in the ACM.
GUIDELINES
1. GENERAL MORAL IMPERATIVES. As an ACM member I will ....
1.1 Contribute to society and human well-being.
This principle
concerning the quality of life of all people affirms an obligation to protect
fundamental human rights and to respect the diversity of all cultures. An
essential aim of computing professionals is to minimize negative consequences
of computing systems, including threats to health and safety. When designing or
implementing systems, computing professionals must attempt to ensure that the
products of their efforts will be used in socially responsible ways, will meet
social needs, and will avoid harmful effects to health and welfare.
In addition to a safe
social environment, human well-being includes a safe natural environment.
Therefore, computing professionals who design and develop systems must be alert
to, and make others aware of, any potential damage to the local or global
environment.
1.2 Avoid harm to others.
"Harm" means
injury or negative consequences, such as undesirable loss of information, loss
of property, property damage, or unwanted environmental impacts. This principle
prohibits use of computing technology in ways that result in harm to any of the
following: users, the general public, employees, employers. Harmful actions
include intentional destruction or modification of files and programs leading
to serious loss of resources or unnecessary expenditure of human resources such
as the time and effort required to purge systems of "computer
viruses."
Well-intended
actions, including those that accomplish assigned duties, may lead to harm
unexpectedly. In such an event the responsible person or persons are obligated
to undo or mitigate the negative consequences as much as possible. One way to
avoid unintentional harm is to carefully consider potential impacts on all
those affected by decisions made during design and implementation.
To minimize the
possibility of indirectly harming others, professionals must minimize
malfunctions by following accepted standards for system design and testing.
Furthermore, it is often necessary to assess the social consequences of systems
to project the likelihood of any serious harm to others. If system features are
misrepresented to users, coworkers, or supervisors, the individual computing
professional is responsible for any resulting injury.
In
the work environment the computing professional has the additional obligation
to report any signs of system dangers that might result in serious personal or
social damage. If one's superiors do not act to curtail or mitigate such
dangers, it may be necessary to "blow the whistle" to help correct
the problem or reduce the risk. However, capricious or misguided reporting of
violations can, itself, be harmful. Before reporting violations, all relevant
aspects of the incident must be thoroughly assessed. In particular, the
assessment of risk and responsibility must be credible. It is suggested that
advice be sought from other computing professionals. See principle 2.5
regarding thorough evaluations.
1.3 Be honest and trustworthy.
Honesty is an essential
component of trust. Without trust an organization cannot function effectively.
The honest computing professional will not make deliberately false or deceptive
claims about a system or system design, but will instead provide full
disclosure of all pertinent system limitations and problems.
A computer professional
has a duty to be honest about his or her own qualifications, and about any
circumstances that might lead to conflicts of interest. Membership in volunteer organizations such
as ACM may at times place individuals in situations where their statements or
actions could be interpreted as carrying the "weight" of a larger
group of professionals. An ACM member will exercise care to not misrepresent
ACM or positions and policies of ACM or any ACM units.
1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
The values of equality,
tolerance, respect for others, and the principles of equal justice govern this
imperative. Discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, age,
disability, national origin, or other such factors is an explicit violation of
ACM policy and will not be tolerated.
Inequities
between different groups of people may result from the use or misuse of
information and technology. In a fair society,all individuals would have equal
opportunity to participate in, or benefit from, the use of computer resources
regardless of race, sex, religion, age, disability, national origin or other
such similar factors. However, these ideals do not justify unauthorized use of
computer resources nor do they provide an adequate basis for violation of any
other ethical imperatives of this code.
1.5 Honor property rights including copyrights and
patents.
Violation of copyrights,
patents, trade secrets and the terms of license agreements is prohibited by law
in most circumstances. Even when software is not so protected, such violations
are contrary to professional behavior.
Copies of software should be made only with proper authorization. Unauthorized duplication of materials must
not be condoned.
1.6 Give proper credit for intellectual property.
Computing professionals
are obligated to protect the integrity of intellectual property. Specifically,
one must not take credit for other's ideas or work, even in cases where the
work has not been explicitly protected by copyright, patent, etc.
1.7 Respect the privacy of others.
Computing and
communication technology enables the collection and exchange of personal
information on a scale unprecedented in the history of civilization. Thus there
is increased potential for violating the privacy of individuals and groups. It
is the responsibility of professionals to maintain the privacy and integrity of
data describing individuals. This includes taking precautions to ensure the
accuracy of data, as well as protecting it from unauthorized access or
accidental disclosure to inappropriate individuals. Furthermore, procedures must be established to allow individuals
to review their records and correct inaccuracies.
This
imperative implies that only the necessary amount of personal information be
collected in a system, that retention and disposal periods for that information
be clearly defined and enforced, and that personal information gathered for a
specific purpose not be used for other purposes without consent of the
individual(s). These principles apply to electronic communications, including
electronic mail, and prohibit procedures that capture or monitor electronic
user data, including messages,without the permission of users or bona fide
authorization related to system operation and maintenance. User data observed during the normal duties
of system operation and maintenance must be treated with strictest
confidentiality, except in cases where it is evidence for the violation of law,
organizational regulations, or this Code. In these cases, the nature or
contents of that information must be disclosed only to proper authorities. (See
1.9)
1.8 Honor confidentiality.
The principle of honesty
extends to issues of confidentiality of information whenever one has made an
explicit promise to honor confidentiality or, implicitly, when private
information not directly related to the performance of one's duties becomes
available. The ethical concern is to respect all obligations of confidentiality
to employers, clients, and users unless discharged from such obligations by
requirements of the law or other principles of this Code.
2. MORE SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES. As an ACM computing professional I will . . .
2.1 Strive to achieve the highest quality,
effectiveness and dignity in both the process and products of professional
work.
Excellence is perhaps
the most important obligation of a professional. The computing professional
must strive to achieve quality and to be cognizant of the serious negative
consequences that may result from poor quality in a system.
2.2 Acquire and maintain professional competence.
Excellence depends on
individuals who take responsibility for acquiring and maintaining professional
competence. A professional must participate in setting standards for
appropriate levels of competence, and strive to achieve those standards.
Upgrading technical knowledge and competence can be achieved in several
ways:doing independent study; attending seminars, conferences, or courses; and
being involved in professional organizations.
2.3 Know and respect existing laws pertaining to
professional work.
ACM members must obey
existing local, state,province, national, and international laws unless there
is a compelling ethical basis not to do so.
Policies and procedures of the organizations in which one participates
must also be obeyed.But compliance must be balanced with the recognition that
sometimes existing laws and rules may be immoral or inappropriate
and,therefore, must be challenged. Violation of a law or regulation may be
ethical when that law or rule has inadequate moral basis or when it conflicts
with another law judged to be more important. If one decides to violate a law
or rule because it is viewed as unethical, or for any other reason, one must
fully accept responsibility for one's actions and for the consequences.
2.4 Accept and provide appropriate professional
review.
Quality professional
work, especially in the computing profession, depends on professional reviewing
and critiquing. Whenever appropriate,individual members should seek and utilize
peer review as well as provide critical review of the work of others.
2.5 Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of
computer systems and their impacts, including analysis of possible risks.
Computer professionals
must strive to be perceptive, thorough, and objective when evaluating,
recommending, and presenting system descriptions and alternatives. Computer professionals are in a position of
special trust, and therefore have a special responsibility to provide
objective, credible evaluations to employers, clients, users, and the public.
When providing evaluations the professional must also identify any relevant
conflicts of interest, as stated in imperative 1.3.
As
noted in the discussion of principle 1.2 on avoiding harm, any signs of danger
from systems must be reported to those who have opportunity and/or
responsibility to resolve them. See the guidelines for imperative 1.2 for more
details concerning harm,including the reporting of professional violations.
2.6 Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned
responsibilities.
Honoring one's
commitments is a matter of integrity and honesty.For the computer professional
this includes ensuring that system elements perform as intended. Also, when one
contracts for work with another party, one has an obligation to keep that party
properly informed about progress toward completing that work.
A
computing professional has a responsibility to request a change in any
assignment that he or she feels cannot be completed as defined. Only after
serious consideration and with full disclosure of risks and concerns to the
employer or client, should one accept the assignment. The major underlying
principle here is the obligation to accept personal accountability for
professional work. On some occasions other ethical principles may take greater
priority.
A
judgment that a specific assignment should not be performed may not be
accepted. Having clearly identified one's concerns and reasons for that
judgment, but failing to procure a change in that assignment, one may yet be
obligated, by contract or by law, to proceed as directed. The computing professional's ethical
judgment should be the final guide in deciding whether or not to proceed.
Regardless of the decision, one must accept the responsibility for the
consequences.
However,
performing assignments "against one's own judgment" does not relieve
the professional of responsibility for any negative consequences.
2.7 Improve public understanding of computing and
its consequences.
Computing professionals
have a responsibility to share technical knowledge with the public by
encouraging understanding of computing, including the impacts of computer
systems and their limitations. This imperative implies an obligation to counter
any false views related to computing.
2.8 Access computing and communication resources
only when authorized to do so.
Theft or destruction of
tangible and electronic property is prohibited by imperative 1.2 -
"Avoid harm to others." Trespassing and unauthorized use of a
computer or communication system is addressed by this imperative. Trespassing includes accessing communication
networks and computer systems, or accounts and/or files associated with those
systems, without explicit authorization to do so. Individuals and organizations
have the right to restrict access to their systems so long as they do not
violate the discrimination principle (see 1.4). No one should enter or use
another's computer system, software, or data files without permission. One must
always have appropriate approval before using system resources, including
communication ports, file space, other system peripherals, and computer time.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IMPERATIVES. As an ACM member and an organizational leader, I
will . . . . .
BACKGROUND NOTE: This section draws extensively from the draft IFIP Code of
Ethics,especially its sections on organizational ethics and international
concerns. The ethical obligations of organizations tend to be neglected in most
codes of professional conduct, perhaps because these codes are written from the
perspective of the individual member. This dilemma is addressed by stating
these imperatives from the perspective of the organizational leader. In this
context"leader" is viewed as any organizational member who has
leadership or educational responsibilities. These imperatives generally may
apply to organizations as well as their leaders. In this
context"organizations" are corporations, government agencies,and
other "employers," as well as volunteer professional organizations.
3.1 Articulate social responsibilities of members
of an organizational unit and encourage full acceptance of those
responsibilities.
Because organizations of
all kinds have impacts on the public, they must accept responsibilities to
society. Organizational procedures and attitudes oriented toward quality and
the welfare of society will reduce harm to members of the public, thereby
serving public interest and fulfilling social responsibility.
Therefore,organizational leaders must encourage full participation in meeting
social responsibilities as well as quality performance.
3.2 Manage personnel and resources to design and
build information systems that enhance the quality of working life.
Organizational leaders
are responsible for ensuring that computer systems enhance, not degrade, the
quality of life. When implementing a
system, organizations must consider the personal and professional development,
physical safety, and human dignity of workers. Appropriate human-
computer ergonomic standards should be considered in system design and in the
workplace.
3.3 Acknowledge and support proper and authorized
uses of an organization's computing and communication resources.
Because computer systems
can become tools to harm as well as to benefit an organization, the leadership
has the responsibility to clearly define appropriate and inappropriate uses of
organizational computing resources.
While the number and scope of such rules should be minimal, they should
be fully enforced when established.
3.4 Ensure that users and those who will be
affected by a system have their needs clearly articulated during the assessment
and design of requirements; later the system must be validated to meet
requirements.
Current system users,
potential users and other persons whose lives may be affected by a system must
have their needs assessed and incorporated in the statement of requirements.
System validation should ensure compliance with those requirements.
3.5 Articulate and support policies that protect
the dignity of users and others effected by a computing system.
Designing or
implementing systems that deliberately or inadvertently demean individuals or
groups is ethically unacceptable. Computer professionals who are in decision
making positions should verify that systems are designed and implemented to
protect personal privacy and enhance personal dignity.
3.6 Create opportunities for members of the
organization to learn the principles and limitations of computer systems.
This complements the
imperative on public understanding (2.7).
Educational opportunities are essential to facilitate optimal
participation of all organizational members. Opportunities must be available to
all members to help them improve their knowledge and skills in computing,
including courses that familiarize them with the consequences and limitations
of particular types of systems.In particular, professionals must be made aware
of the dangers of building systems around oversimplified models, the
improbability of anticipating and designing for every possible operating
condition, and other issues related to the complexity of this profession.
4. COMPLIANCE WITH THE CODE. As an ACM member I will ...
4.1 Uphold and promote the principles of this Code.
The future of the
computing profession depends on both technical and ethical excellence. Not only is it important for ACM computing
professionals to adhere to the principles expressed in this Code, each member
should encourage and support adherence by other members.
4.2 Treat violations of this code as inconsistent
with membership in the ACM.
Adherence of
professionals to a code of ethics is largely a voluntary matter. However, if a member does not follow this
code by engaging in gross misconduct, membership in ACM may be terminated.
___________
This Code and the
supplemental Guidelines were developed by the Task Force for the Revision of
the ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct: Ronald E. Anderson, Chair,
Gerald Engel, Donald Gotterbarn, Grace C. Hertlein, Alex Hoffman, Bruce Jawer,
Deborah G. Johnson, Doris K. Lidtke, Joyce Currie Little, Dianne Martin, Donn
B. Parker, Judith A. Perrolle, and Richard S. Rosenberg. The Task Force was organized by ACM/SIGCAS
and funding was provided by the ACM SIG Discretionary Fund. This Code and the supplemental Guidelines
were adopted by the ACM Council on October 16, 1992.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ON COMPUTER ETHICS
This list of references
was developed in conjunction with the article, "Using the new ACM code
of ethics in decision making" (Communications of the ACM,
February, 1993) by Ronald E. Anderson, Deborah G. Johnson, Donald Gotterbarn
and Judith Perrolle. The article shows how to evaluate individual cases with
the newly adopted ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. The references in this bibliography are
grouped into nine topics corresponding to the nine case studies in the
article. A list of general references
on computer ethics follows at the end.
1: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Bynum, T. W., Maner, W.,
and Fodor, J. eds., Software Ownership and Intellectual Property Rights,
Research Center on Computing and Society, Southern Connecticut State
University, New Haven, CT 06515, 1992.
Forester,
T. Software theft and the problem
of intellectual property rights. Computers and Society 20,1 (March,
1990) 2-11.
National
Research Council. Intellectual
Property Issues in Software.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington DC., 1991.
2: PRIVACY
Bynum,
T. W., Maner, W., and Fodor, J. eds., Computing and Privacy, Research
Center on Computing and Society, Southern Connecticut State University, New
Haven, CT 06515, 1992.
Flaherty,
D., Protecting privacy in surveillance societies. University of North Carolina Press, l989.
Freedman, W. The
Right of Privacy in the Computer Age, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.,
l987.
IEEE Computer Society
Press. Proceedings of the First conference on Computers, Freedom and
Privacy. Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1991.
IEEE
Computer Society Press. Proceedings of the Second Conference on Computers,
Freedom and Privacy. Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society
Press, 1992.
Salpeter,
J., "Are you obeying copyright law?", Technology and
Learning. 12, 8 (1992) 12-23.
3: CONFIDENTIALITY
AMA
(American Medical Association). 1989. Current Opinions. American Medical Association, 535 N.
Dearborn St., Chicago IL 60610.
Ellenberg,
Jonas H. Ethical guidelines for statistical practice: A historical perspective.
The American Statistician. 37(1) 1-13, 1983.
Ezorsky,
G. .Ed. Moral Rights in the Workplace, State University of New York
Press, New York 1987.
Gerson,
E. M. and Star, S. L. Analyzing due process in the workplace, ACM
Transactions on Office Information Systems, 4, (l986).
Guynes,
C. S. Protecting statistical databases: A matter of privacy. Computers and Society 19,1 (March,
1989), 15-23.
Laudon,
K. C. Dossier Society: Value Choices in the Design of National Information
Systems, Columbia University Press, l986.
4: QUALITY IN PROFESSIONAL WORK
Gotterbarn,
D. "Computer ethics: Responsibility regained." National
Forum. (Summer 1991), 26-32.
Gotterbarn,
D. "Ethics and the computing professional." Collegiate
Microcomputer. X, 3 (August) 1992.
Petschenik,
N.H. "Practical Priorities in System Testing." IEEE
Software 2, 5 (Sept. 1985), 18-23.
5: FAIRNESS AND DISCRIMINATION
Anderson,
R. E. et. al. Inequity in computing. in Huff, C., and Fineholt, T. Social
Issues in Computing: Putting computers in Their Place. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
Frenkel,
K. A. Women and computing. Comm. of the ACM 33,11 (Nov., 1990),
34-46.
Greenbaum, J. The
head and the heart: Using gender analysis to study the social construction of
computer systems. Computers and Society,20,2 (June, 1990), 9-17.
Martin,
C. D. and Murche-Beyma, E., Eds In Search of Gender Free Paradigms for
Computer Science Education, International Society for Technology in
Education, Eugene, OR, 1992.
Pearl,
A., Pollack, M. E., Riskin, E., Thomas, B., Wolf, E. and Wu, A. Becoming a computer scientist: A report
by the ACM Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Science. Comm.
of the ACM 33,11 (Nov., 1990), 46-57.
Perrolle,
J. Conversations and Trust in Computer Interfaces. In Computers and Controversy, Dunlop and Kling, Eds.,
1991.
6: LIABILITY FOR UNRELIABILITY
Anderson,
R. M. et. al. Divided Loyalties: Whistle-Blowing at BART. West
Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 1980.
Borning,
A. Computer system reliability and nuclear war, Comm of ACM 30,2
(1987) 112-131.
Daniels,
B. K. ed., Safety, Security & Reliability Related Computers for the
l990's, Pergamon Press, Inc., l990.
Joyce,
E.J. "Software Bugs: A Matter of Life and Liability." Datamation 33, 10 (May 15, 1987) 88-92.
Leveson,
N.G. Software Safety. Curriculum Module SEI-CM-6-1.1,
Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1987.
Nycum,
S. Liability for malfunction of a computer program. Rutgers Journal of
Computers, Technology, and the Law. 7, 1-22, 1979.
Parnas,
D. L. SDI: A Violation of Professional Responsibility. Abacus 4,2
(Winter, 1987) 46-52.
7: SOFTWARE RISKS
Clark,
D. Computers at Risk: Safe Computing in the Information Age, National
Research Council, National Academy Press, 1990.
Pressman,
R. S. & Herron, R. Software Shock: The Danger and the Opportunity.
Dorsett House, 1991.
U.S.
Congress. House. Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the Committee
on Science, Space, and Technology. Bugs in the Program: Problems in Federal
Government Computer Software Development and Regulation. 101st Cong., 1st
sess.,Serial G, (Sept 1989)
8: CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Bayles,
M. D. Professional Ethics. Wadsworth, Belmont, California, 1981
DeGeorge,
R. T. Business Ethics. Macmillan, New York, 1982.
Johnson,
D. G. Ethical issues in Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1991
Martin,
M. W. and Schinzinger, R. Ethics in Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1989
Stevenson,
J. T. Engineering Ethics: Practices and Principles. Canadian Scholars
Press, Toronto, 1987.
9: UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS
Denning,
P. J., Ed. Computers under Attack: Intruders, Worms and Viruses, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.,
l990.
Hoffman,
L. J. ed., Rogue Programs: Viruses, Worms, and Trojan Horses, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, l990.
Landreth,
B. Out of the Inner Circle: The True Story of a Computer Intruder Capable of
Cracking the Nation's Most Secure Computer Systems, Microsoft Press, l989.
Levin,
R. Computer Virus Handbook, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, l990.
Levy,
S. Hackers: Heroes of the computer revolution, Doubleday Press, l984.
Spafford,
G. "Are computer hacker break-ins ethical?" Journal
of Systems Software 17, (January, 1992).
Spafford,
G. Computer Viruses: Dealing with Electronic Vandalism and Programmed
Threats, ADAPSO, l989.
Stoll,
C. The Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage,
Doubleday, l989.
10. GENERAL REFERENCES
ACM
(Association for Computing Machinery).
ACM proposed code of ethics and professional conduct. Communications
of the ACM. 35(5):94-99, 1992.
ACM/SIGCAS
(ACM Special Interest Group on Computers and Society), Proceedings of the
Conference on Computers and the Quality of Life, CQL '90, New York: ACM Press, 1990.
Brown,
G. The Information Game: Ethical Issues in a Microchip World, Humanities
Press Intl., l989.
Bynum,
T. W., Maner, W., and Fodor, J. eds., Teaching Computer Ethics, Research
Center on Computing and Society, Southern Connecticut State University, New
Haven, CT 06515, 1992.
Bynum,
T. W. ed., Computers & Ethics, Volume 16, No. 4, October l985.
Basil Blackwell,
Collins, W. R. & Miller, K. W. "Paramedic Ethics for Computer Professionals" Journal of
Systems and Software, 17 (January 1992), 23-38.
Dunlop,
C. and Kling, R., Eds. Computerization & Controversy: Value Conflicts
& Social Choices, Academic Press, l991.
Erdmann,
M. D. Willimas, M. B. and Gutierrez, C. Computers, Ethics and Society,
Oxford University Press, l990.
Flores,
A. and Johnson, D. "Collective Responsibility and Professional
Roles," Ethics, vol 93 (April 1983).
Forester,
T. and Morrison, P. Computer Ethics: Cautionary Tales and Ethical Dilemmas
in Computing, The MIT Press, l990.
Frankel,
Mark S. 1989. Professional Codes: Why, How, and with What Impact? Journal
of Business Ethics 8(2 & 3): 109-116.
Gert,
B. Morality: A New Justification of the Moral Rules. NewYork: Oxford
University Press, 1988.
Gotterbarn,
D. "Editor's Corner" Journal of Systems Software 17,
(January, 1992), 5-6.
Gould,
C., Ed The Information Web: Ethical and Social Implications of Computer
Networking, Westview Press, l989.
IEEE
Computer Society Press. Computing Curricula 1991, Report of the ACM/IEEE-CS
Joint Curriculum Task Force. Los Alamitos, California, l991.
Johnson,
D. G. and Snapper, J. W. Eds. Ethical Issues in the Use of Computers,
Wadsworth, Belmont CA. 1985.
Johnson,
D. G. Computer Ethics, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1985.
Johnson,
D. G. Computer Ethics, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.,1993.
Johnson,
D. W. Computer Ethics: A Guide for the New Age, Brethren Press, l984.
Lipner,
S. E. and Stephen Kalman, Computer
Law: Cases and Materials, C.E. Merrill Publishing Co., l989.
Lyon,
D. The Information Society: Issues and Illusions, Polity Press, New
York, l988.
Martin,
C. Dianne & Martin, David H. Comparison of ethics codes of computer professionals,"
Social Science Computer Review 9, 1 (1990), 96-108.
Parker,
D. B. Ethical Conflicts in Computer Science and Technology, AFIPS Press,
Arlington, VA 1979.
Parker,
D. Computer Crime: Criminal Justice Resource Manual, 2nd ed., National
Institute of Justice, August l989.
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[1] Adopted by ACM Council 10/16/92.