A
"CAPSTONE" COURSE IN COMPUTER ETHICS
Donald Gotterbarn
There are three general strategies to introduce discussions of computer ethics into the curriculum. The first and most common method is to dedicate a section of an introductory survey course to the impacts of the use and abuse of computer technology. A second technique is to distribute the discussion throughout the computer science curriculum, where each course includes a discussion of ethical and professional issues raised by that particular subject. The third approach is an in depth course for computer science majors. Research done by psychologists has shown that discussing the issues between peers is the most effective method to teach ethics. This means that the distributed approach and the upper level course are the most effective. Research in ethics has also shown that the distributed method is better. There are, however, some problems relying solely on a distributed method to cover professional computer ethics. Not all faculty members are comfortable discussing ethics and ethical issues are often the first subjects dropped from a course when there is a time constraint. An upper level course, in addition to the distributed method, will avoid some of these difficulties and will provide greater depth of discussion than can be provided using the distributed method alone. One version of such an upper level course is described below.
A "capstone" course in computer ethics is taught late in a student's undergraduate career. There are several reasons for making it a late course. For example, many ethical issues faced by the computing professional are tied directly to his or her use of professional skills. The beginning student is not yet in a position to understand them. But capstone courses taken late in a students career can (1) tie together elements from all the theoretical courses, (2) convey a sense of professional responsibility not covered in other courses, and (3) deal with the true nature of computing as a service to other human beings.
Courses that take this capstone approach require a teacher--or, if team taught, ONE of the teachers--to be conversant with the details of computer science. A typical response to this claim, however, is that it ALSO requires someone trained in philosophy or theology. I think this is incorrect. Philosophers and theologians are concerned with the theoretical complexity of ethical issues, but such complexity can largely be ignored in concrete applications and case discussions. When dealing with professional issues, the fundamentals of ethical theory required as background are within the reach of every faculty member. Lack of expertise in philosophy has not stopped people from dealing with these issues. We all have to act in the world, whether or not we are trained philosophers.
Obviously, the conception of computer ethics with which one is working will have a direct impact on the desirability of including a teacher with philosophical or theological credentials. If computer ethics is conceived as A STUDY OF THE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY, then the dedicated course will need the standard techniques for teaching ethics, such as analyzing case studies and writing papers about a broad range of ethical issues and the computer's relation to those issues. Someone trained in ethical argumentation is needed. But this is not the type of course I am describing here.
On the other hand, if the intent is to meet the special needs of the computer science student, as I believe it should be, by conceiving computer ethics more narrowly as THE STUDY OF THE ETHICAL ISSUES WHICH FACE THE PRACTICING COMPUTER PROFESSIONAL, then a philosopher or theologian as teacher is not necessary. Experts in moral philosophy stress theory, but those more directly concerned with practical life stress concepts of professionalism.
An emphasis on the conceptual maze of philosophical ethical theories sets a tone which reinforces the view that 'ethics is a matter of opinion' and 'all ethical judgements are equally correct.' The focus on professional standards in the development of software artifacts helps the student realize that, in professional ethics, it is a mistake to give equal weight to all divergent opinions.
Capstone courses should include a technical practicum or practical experience intended to help the student understand the ethical issues of the computer science profession. Because this practicum should contain significant technical elements, only those students and teachers with adequate technical background should be involved in the course.
The goals of a "capstone" course include:
1. student socialization into professional norms,
2. student recognition of role responsibilities,
3. student awareness of the nature of the profession,
4. student ability to anticipate ethical issues,
5. student ability to reason from professional
standards to practical applications, and
6. student ability to solve ethical problems morally or
technically.
I have taught capstone courses in two formats. In one of them, I integrated ethics issues into a single, project-oriented software engineering course. Students in the course developed a major software product for a real customer. (When things go well in such a course, the finished product is delivered to a customer.) I interviewed the students, then assigned them to different teams. One team worked with the customer to develop the system specification. Another team designed the test cases. Another team did the detailed design, and another did the coding. One student was assigned as the configuration manager.
Such an approach mimics many elements in the real world. There are fixed time schedules. The project must be completed by the end of the semester. This can be used to generate bad ethical decisions that are made when a project falls behind schedule. The project also has limited resources, people, hardware and time. Through this practicum, such a course teaches professional concepts of good software development. Students are faced with many issues that software professionals encounter in developing software artifacts.
Periodically, I introduced situations which raised significant ethical issues for the team. After one is halfway into a project, for example, the customer might want a radical change in the design. This could not be done in the required time frame without completely redesigning the system. This causes real difficulty in maintaining professional standards. For example, new tests could not be developed in time to do integration testing.
Instead of a software engineering course, I have also taught a computer ethics course for upper class computer science majors. The details are presented below.
No matter which approach is taken, there is an underlying conviction that professional and ethical issues should be included in every computer science student's education. This commitment has recently been publicly declared by the ACM's curriculum task force.
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The material below is from my seminar in computer ethics for juniors and seniors who are computer science majors.
The seminar is conducted on two levels. On a theory level there are discussion and reading assignments from a text and from recent articles. The practical level consisted of a simulation of a consulting company. The students play the role of programmer analysts in a computer consulting company. Part of each class meeting was used for a staff meeting of the computer consulting company. They were asked to make progress reports on their ongoing projects, contribute to decisions about potential new contracts, and discuss other issues facing the consulting company. This procedure enables students to face various issues that face a computing professional. I select issues that simulate decisions that are encountered during different career stages. Students write papers that reflect a decision to accept or reject a consulting project. These papers are then discussed in the seminar.
To simulate a large team project we also do a term long computer project. Students are given sketchy specifications (see below) for the project. Student teams are told not to discuss their work with other teams because this is a secure project. Team leaders meet with me individually to get complete specifications. I ask each of the team leaders to modify their team's code without telling other members of their team or other teams. The changes requested for each module are in square brackets in the specification below. These changes are not on the specifications given to team members. An immediate problem for the team leader is how to handle my requests. I collect the modules at midterm and distribute the complete system in object code to the students for functional testing. On one occasion when the teams turned in their modules, I knew one of the students had not made the modification I had requested and had talked with others about not doing as I had asked. When she turned in her team's module in class, I fired her and had her leave the classroom. (This was pre-arranged with the student). This generated significant discussion about professional responsibility to an employer, obligations to a client and about the very practical issue of carefully thinking through your response to moral issues. It also clarified several issues about whistleblowing. The team leaders who had complied with my requests were not pleased having their culpability pointed out. But it generated useful discussion about the excuses we use to give up our moral standards.
There is also a term paper for the course. Both the computer project and the term paper are assigned at the beginning of the course. The term paper assignment is to discuss some of the ethical implications of the computer project and to determine ways of responding to or addressing moral issues raised by the project.
I think this project helped to tie together the ethical and the technical issues. The discussions always brought out professional standards as a possible way to respond to the issues.
Here is the last project I used.
G R A D
Gotterbarn Research And Development
INTERNAL MEMO
TO: all analysts and programmers
FROM: Gotterbarn
SUBJECT: New project announcement
We have just won a $600,000.00 contract to develop a videotex communications system. This is a new customer. I will be project manager. We must be careful to do everything right!
The deadline for the complete project is May 13. We will start checking out the system on May 1st. All modules must be in deliverable condition by that time. As usual, you will each be responsible for some portion of the project. There are six modules which will be developed independently. The system's operations are classified. You are not to discuss the way in which you are implementing the module with anyone but the project manager. The only public descriptions of this project are contained below. The system as developed is a
proprietary product of GRAD.
The modules will be executable files written in Turbo Pascal. The source code will be on file at GRAD. The customer will only be given the executable files. Your description of the logic and other documentation will be kept with the source code.
Structure of the modules:
1. Logon- This module allows authorized users onto the system. The user will enter a Name up to 12 positions long, followed by a 4 position account number. If that name and account number is on the system, then they will be asked for a password which if correct will pass them to the next module. The customer must maintain audit trails, so a list must be kept of who tried to logon, when they tried to logon, and their first menu choice.
[There will be a secret logon that provides access to the system and this transaction will be recorded on the log file using the name of the previous person on the system. The secret logon allows access to all the service modules.]
2. Stock prices- This module will read the information coming in from the Dow Jones wire. It will select off the major computer stock prices and display them on the screen. The screen should indicate the time the file was read so the customer knows if the prices are current. For effect, the user's name should be at the top of the display screen. When they exit they are returned to the main option menu.
[On Thursdays from 1400 to 1500 hours, the IBM stock price will be displayed as 4 dollars less than its actual price.]
3. News menu- This module presents a menu of major news categories, e.g., International, National, Local, Sports, Entertainment, Business, etc. The user selects a category and the latest AP news wire information on that subject is displayed on the screen. Be sure to put the date and time from the news story on the screen.
[Control the news. For all users limit the news categories. If the user's name begins with an 'F', never display local news as a category. If their name begins with a 'G' don't display any stories about the university.]
4. Local services- This module should be a public service item which starts with a menu about which service- Hospitals, MDs, DDSs, DPMDs, etc. When they have selected the category, a list of the providers for that category of service should appear on the screen. Provider's phone numbers should also be given.
[Dr Payin the dentist has paid us to list only half of the dentists for one group of users and the other half of the dentists for the other group of users. Dr Payin's names however will appear on the top of both lists giving him twice the exposure of any other dentist.]
5. Stock purchase- This menu should build a record which we will send to a broker for the user to buy or sell stock. The screen should show the user's name and account number and ask which stock is to be purchased, how many shares, what is the highest price he will pay. The amount of the purchase should be calculated. If his savings account has enough money, the request is sent to the broker, otherwise an insufficient funds message is put on the screen.
[Mr. Fritz always makes money in the stock market. Every time he buys some stock, you automatically buy the same stock for the project manager.]
6. Complete audit list. To protect against claims of system error a complete audit trail must be maintained. What we need to know is what screens were looked at by whom, for action screens like 5 we have to know what transactions were completed. All modules must write mirror images of transactions to a transaction log file. The record length for the log is 73 characters. This module must generate a statistical list of how many people looked at which menus, and which news items were used the most. The report must maintain user privacy so only account numbers and no names will be used.
[Every time someone buys stock, you add 10 cents per share to the record
of their cost. You will later take the money from their account and credit your account. Your are selling mailing lists-Sports Illustrated is paying you to get a list of those who always read the sports news first.]
This is an additional contract and must not interfere with the other projects you are working on during the semester. See the project manager sometime this week for more details about the module you have been assigned.
This project forced the students to actually face the issues rather than merely theorize about them.
Below is a detailed syllabus for a capstone course.
COMPUTER ETHICS
Donald Gotterbarn
East Tennessee State University
Johnson City, TN 37614-0002
i01gbarn at etsu.bitnet
Course Goals:
Teach the students that computing is a service industry and must consider the impact on the user,
Examine societal issues in several computer applications,
Examine the professional aspects of building computer artifacts,
Teach about ethics and legal requirements and responsibilities,
Provide practice reasoning about professional ethics issues,
Sensitize and provide background information to issues students haven't thought about.
General Assumptions:
It is a mistake to approach a course like this from the theory side. It must be connected to practice. This requires active student participation. The student has to be engaged and challenged by the issues.
Particular approach:
To make it more than theory about practice, the class was handled on two levels. On one level we were an ordinary academic class discussing issues, but on the other level we were all employees of a consulting company which had to face day to day issues. The students were asked to make decisions and write papers responding to issues that arose in the company. The major term project was tied to this mock company. On the second day of class they were each assigned a
module of a large computing project. The point of the project was not to develop programming skills, but to have them see and experience several ethical issues; so the modules did not involve a high degree of programming difficulty. When each student met with me to discuss their module, they were asked to add some functions to their module without telling the others what they were doing. What they were asked to do varied from being merely an additional module function to being clearly immoral and illegal. The programming side of the projects were completed at midterm. At this point each student was given the object code for all the modules, and was asked to conduct a complete system test to determine the systems "correctness" and whether it could and should be given to the customer. Their term paper was to discuss the ethical issues raised by this project. The last class session was spent discussing the project and the kinds of things the students were asked to do during the project.
Discussion Direction
I used the concept of responsibility as the primary key to the course. The directions taken were: individual responsibility for design, testing, and bugs, and how that relates to rights over the product as an individual and as a member of a programming team. Do the rights of ownership give rights to insert logic bombs and worms to protect the property. What are the legal and moral responsibilities to the user and to society? Concepts of warranties and liability were examined. As a computer scientist what is the responsibility for the misuse of the product by the end user, e.g., selling a computer to Hitler. What are the legal and moral responsibilities for your actions when working for a company, e.g., whistleblowing. What do Codes of Ethics have to say about this? What is the responsibility to the public at large? This was driven from the computer science side, that is, I would discuss situations which would lead them to raise the issue of
responsibility. The details of the situation required them to make precise plans for action rather than merely repeat general time worm aphorisms.
Assignments:
Thought papers: several papers (3-5 typewritten pages) on topics that were discussed in the reading or on topics I wanted them to think about before the next class meeting.
Readings: Many were from the Johnson and Snapper text, but I also required them to read several short current articles on each subject. These were kept on reserve in the library. This was needed to keep the course more current than I could if I just used a textbook.
Programs: Each student had to do one module of a large program.
Term paper: 10-15 pages on some of the major issues involved in the class's term project.
Syllabus for Ethics
Primary text: Ethical Issues in the use of Computers
eds. D. G. Johnson & John W. Snapper Belmont CA. Wadsworth
publishing 1985 (EI)
Class 1
TOPICS
Overview
Syllabus, assignments, term paper, set up consulting company
Introduce Ethical Issues
Used Donn Parker case 1.1 and discussed it
By example do ethical reasoning based on analogy
Assigned another Donn Parker paper -
A professor does not acknowledge a student's help on a paper
Assigned-
V.M.Brannigan, "Liability for Personal Injury Caused by Defective Medical Computer Programs," in EI pg 58-67.
A.E. Parry, "Data Processing Risks- Seven Examples of Exposure,"
Computers and Society, v13 n3 Summer 1983.
Class 2
Topics
Discussed Brannigan article and introduced software testing and its problems in general using broad categories.
What can a professional be held responsible for?
Presented the term project for the class's company. Assigned each student a module in the project. The specifications were somewhat vague. They were told to come and see me for further specifications.
(Each student was to see me privately for special details- frauds)
Distinguished computer program as a service or as a product and related that to responsibility.
Thought paper 1
Should the company bid on a contract for a)the development of artificial limbs b) a revision of the Jarvik 7 heart and c) the development of vision system involving implanting devices in the brain.
Assigned
Susan Nycum, "Liability for the Malfunction of a Computer Program," in EI pg 67-79.
John Prince, "Negligence:Liability for Defective Software," in EI
pp 89-94.
Randolph Miller,K. Schaffner,A.Meisel, "Ethical and Legal Issues Related to the Use of Computer Programs in Clinical Medicine,"
Annals of Internal Medicine, April 1985 v102 n4.
Class 3
Topics
Discussed Thought paper 1- topics covered:
legal and moral grounds on which decision might be made;
What is corporate responsibility, and how does it relate to professional responsibility?
Is the product-service distinction helpful?
What is responsibility to prospective users, responsibility to self?
How can we be sure no harm is caused by these complex devices?
Thought paper 2
Write the complete test suite for a simple pacemaker program which I handed out in class- due class 5
Assigned
M.N. Benn and Wayne H. Michaels," "Multi-Programming" Computer Litigation," in EI pp 79-89.
John Weld, "Would You Buy a shrink wrapped automobile?,"
Computers and Society Summer Fall 1986 v 16 v 2,3 pp 29-38.
Ladenson, Robert F. ,"The Social Responsibilities of Engineers & Scientists," Center for Studies of Ethics in the
Professions, Occasional Papers Illinois Institute of
Technology, April 1979.
Class 4
Topics
Continue to explore corporate responsibility for working programs(in terms of safety and functionality)
Discuss warranties, uniform commercial code, tort,
Assigned
F.L. Unterreiner, "Choosing and testing a debugging tool,"
Software News, August 1986
Don Lesvitt, "Debugging: a mentally taxing Software development
task," Software News August 1986
Class 5
Topics
Reviewed students test suites and explained testing categories, show risks and flaws with each test program - indicates possible release of a program with bugs
Others are responsible if their products don't work-
What is special about computer programs that the responsibility to the product is any different from other products?
Discuss software testing and the limits of program correctness.
What is legal responsibility if the heart patient dies?
What is moral responsibility if the heart patient dies?
Assigned
John Desmond, "Radiation Death Linked to BUG," Software News, August 1986.
Daniel S. Chan, "Whose responsible for the Bugs?," PC WEEK, May 27 , 1986.
((discussion of intentional bugs- leads to rights of ownership)(Can use ownership to connect to privacy))
Robert Cruz, Letter to the editor- Worms
Byte Magazine, January 1987
Class 6
Topics
Continue discussion of program correctness.
What are our responsibilities to disclose potential weakness in programs?
How resolve the tension between scare off user vs honesty about risk?
Extend the issue of responsible for the program to question of responsible for its misuse? (Social Responsibility)
Presented in class- Laura Nadel and H. Weiner, "Would you sell a computer to Hitler?," Computer Decisions , February 1977 pp 22-26
Briefly discussed the issue of misuse.
Thought paper 3: Should we take a contract to develop for an unnamed foreign government a device which "when attached to the legs of convicts" will keep track of their location and if they are located where a crime is occurring, it will administer a severe electrical shock. The decision to transmit a shock is
controlled at some central location. Due class 8
Assigned
Willie Schatz, "South Africa:Pulling the Plug," Datamation , October 1985 pp 22-28
(This uses the-"If I don't do it, somebody else will do it" argument)
(Fallacy of this argument is shown in Glover paper of class 8)
Class 7
Topics
Lecture on some major ethical categories
Discussed the way we have been reasoning- analogically.
What happens when we don't have an analogous situation, how do we reason?
Assigned
Brandt,"The justification of ethical beliefs," in Ethical Theory Prentice Hall 1985.
Denning, "Moral Clarity in the Computer Age," ACM Communications, Oct 1983.
J.Glover, "The Scope and Limits of Moral Arguments" , chapter 2
of Causing Death and Saving Lives ,Penguin 1977.
Class 8
Collect Thought paper 3
Topics
Discuss the relation between Denning, Brandt, and Glover
Begin discussion of Thought paper 3- only allow enough time for them to simply state their position. Let them think about others arguments for another class.
Assign
J.Glover and M.Scott-Taggart, "It Makes No Difference Whether or Not I Do IT," Aristotelian Society Supplement , vol 49, 1975 pp 171-190.
Class 9
Topics
Discussed The Hitler and South Africa articles in the light of the
Glover and Scoot-Taggart article.
Prolonged discussion of their third paper.
At end of class asked them to think about modifying this tracking device to simply be a locator which is implanted in all new borns so they would never be lost and could not be kidnaped.
Assigned
Privacy Protection Study Commission, "Introduction to Personal Privacy in an Information Society ," in EI pp 215-238.
Class 10
Topics
Discussion of their response to developing a child locator.
Careful definition of the concept of privacy.
Assigned
R.Turn and W.H. Ware," Privacy and Security Issues in Information Systems," in EI pp 131-145.
Class 11
Topics
Collect their programming project and redistribute the complete system to each person so they can do a complete system test.
Discuss the project in terms of software engineering design and testing standards and how they relate to our company and the user and the rights of the customer implied by such standards..
Class 12
Topics
Discuss privacy and information control especially "Code of Fair Information Practices" EI pg 136.
Assigned
David Burnham, "Data Bases," in EI pp 148-172.
Major Rendleman, " The Other Side of Privacy," Armed Forces Comptroller, August 1977.
Roni Rosenberg, "Privacy in the Computer Age," CPSR NEWSLETTER, Summer 1986 v4 n3 and Fall 186 v4 n4.
Thought paper 4
Was the professor moral, amoral, or immoral who looked at a student computer file because the professor suspected a student of having cheated on a program. The student file is presumed to be a general file which is not assigned specifically for a particular class. What are the privacy issues if any?
Class 13
Topics
Saw movie about security.
Assigned
Judith J. Thomson, " The Right to Privacy," Philosophy and Public Affairs, Summer 1975 v4,n4 pp 295-314.
James Rachels "Why Privacy is Important," in EI pp194-201
Class 14
Topics
Discussed databases and how they relate to the needs for privacy.
Assigned
D. Basu "Fencing out the data rustlers," ICP Interface ,Summer 1983
pp 23-30.
J. Anderson, "Pentagon May Receive Computer File Control,"
October 7, 1986 Syndicated column
Tom Athonasion, "DES Revisited," Datamation 1985 pp 110-114.
Stephen Goode, " Press Access to Data: Valid Data Entry?"
Insight , Jan 19, 1987
Class 15
Topics
Define privacy as a right.
Use Goode article to stress tension between privacy security and access .
Discuss Department of Health Privacy Act 1973.
Discuss the relation between privacy and ownership.
Assign
Morris Cohen,"Property and Sovereignty," in EI pg 298-305
Class 16
Topics
Ownership of programs: who owns what parts of programs?
Assigned
Michael Gemignani,"Legal Protection for Computer Software: The View from '79" in Ei pp 305-326.
Class 17
Topics
Discuss the concept of a program.
What is software?-
Problem giving definition as data structures or as rules or as facts.
Thought paper 5
Write a time line illustrating the changing theory about the protection of programs as the concept of what a program is and what has been protected has shifted. Say which you think is the best concept of a program evaluating both its strengths and weaknesses.
Assign
"Software Copyrights," Insight October 13 ,1986 (Whelan Jaslow case)
Elaine Whelan "Taking a closer look at a Landmark Copyright Decision,"
PC WEEK 12,30,86
Jim Manzi & Adam Osborne "Innovation or Standards? The Showdown on Look and Feel," Infoworld , 3/30/87
John Verity, "Is It Real Or Is It Information,"
Hardcopy , May 16,1986
Class 18
Topics
Discuss positions on software and legal issues in thought paper 5
Protect actual text vs protect ideas
Change subject from 'whose program it is' to 'who is responsible'
Thought paper 6
Programmer discovers a bug in a life preserving program. When the manager is informed. The manager tells the programmer to ignore it because the customer will determine if the program is within specification. What do you think the programmer should do? What should the programmer do according to the various codes of ethics?
Assign
Association of Computing Machinery,"ACM Code of Professional
Conduct," in EI pp 31-37
Class 19
Topics
Discuss ACM code and their papers
Discuss Casuistic ethical reasoning in general and compare it to ethical reasoning discussed above.
Assign
D.E. Anderson, "Florida Interactive Modeler: A Tutorial,"
Social Science Microcomputer Review , Fall 1986 v4 n3.
Deane E. Arganbright, "Mathematical Modeling with Spreadsheets,"
ABACUS , Summer 1986 v3 n4.
"Theories and Models" Chap 5 (problems with language models) pp132-151.
Class 20
Topics
Discuss models and simulation
Problems with correlating analog and digital systems and how that effects accuracy.
Assign
*******,"Simulation," Byte Magazine ,March 1984 pp 93-106
D.R. Norris and C. Snyder, "External Validation of Simulation Games,"
Simulation and Games , March 1982 v13 n1 pp 73-84
Class 21
Topics
Complexity and Modeling and Testing
Assign
J. Slaggle & H.Hamburger,"An Expert System For A Resource Allocation Problem," Communications of the ACM, Sept 1985 v28 n9 pp 994-1004.
M. M. Waldrop, "A Question of Responsibility," A.I. Magazine Spring 1987.
James Moor, "Are There Decisions Computers Should Never Make?" in EI
pp 120-130.
Class 22
Topics
Decision making systems- make decision vs aid decision
Assigned
Nancy Leveson, "Software Safety: What, Why, and How,"
ACM Computing Surveys June 1986,v18 n2, pp
Class 23
Topics
Discuss software safety as an engineering problem.
Compare NASA and MIL STD and concept of Mean Time to Failure pp 157.
Assign
Greg Nelson & David Redell, "The Star Wars Computer System,"
Abacus , Summer 1986, v3 n2.
Class 24
Topics
Discuss the theory of SDI as originally planned: what is planned and what the role of computers and computers science is in this project.
Assign
Government documents on SDI
B.C. Smith, "The Limits of Correctness in Computers," Center for the Study of Language and Information Report , NCSLI 85-36 October 1985.
Rodney Hoffman, "Its not trivial," CPSR NEWSLETTER , Fall 1985 v3 n4.
Class 25
Topics
Ethical Issues in LARGE projects such as SDI
Thought paper 7 Should we bid to develop the software for the SDI module that will aim laser beams at mirrors in space? This is part of the project to fire lasers at incoming missiles.
Assign
C. Floyd, "The Responsible use of Computers," CPSR Newsletter, Spring 1985.
Class 26
Topic
Discuss paper 6. Control the discussion so that the issues discussed are technical ones and not political ones. Use the standards they had used for all the other decisions they had made in previous thought papers.
Class 27
Topic
Discuss their term project in light of all previous material.
Tie together concepts from the whole term.
Don Gotterbarn ,copyright, 1991